Valley of the Dragons
Kashmir occupies an important place in Buddhist history and so do Dragons. In Buddhist legends, Kashmir was once a dragon lake.
There isn’t a word for "dragon" in the Kashmiri language. Yet, it is one of the rare cultures that include dragons in their mythology. According to the mythological history of Kashmir, it was a "Serpent Kingdom," with inhabitants who were half-human and half-serpentine, as described in Kalhana’s epic, "Rajtarangani."
In South Asia, dragon legends are scarce, but in Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan the Dragon legend is tied to its history. Historians attribute this to the influence of Chinese and Mesopotamian cultures, which feature draconian creatures similar to dragons.
Kashmir is an important centre of Buddhist history. It is from here that two world councils of Buddhism were held in the 9th century. It is also in Kashmir, where Mahayana Buddhism emerged and spread towards Tibet and Central Asia.
It is no surprise to find Kashmir in Buddhist history. Buddhist legends mention Kashmir as a "dragon lake," a lake inhabited by a dragon that was later drained by a saviour prophesied by Buddha. But before delving into the details of this legend, it’s essential to understand how such legends form.
A Dragon and a Lake
In the late 19th century, a British missionary James Hinton Knowles visited Kashmir. He was also the first principal of the Tyndale Biscoe School Kashmir from 1876 to 1880. During his time in Kashmir, he wrote two books, A Dictionary Of Kashmiri Proverbs And Sayings published in 1888 and Folk-Tales Of Kashmir - a collection of fables and tales published in 1893. In the latter book, Knowles noted that nearly every culture has a story of a monster devastating the local population. He described the dragon as a "representative of arrogant power and cruelty, whose sole object is to oppose order and peace." In legends worldwide, dragons often dwell in caves or bodies of water to protect them.
Chinese legend says that after living for 1,000 years, a snake will transform into a dragon.
In the valleys, rivers hold prime importance in the local culture. They provide sustenance for agricultural land but can also cause devastation through floods or droughts. Such natural calamities often lead to the creation of demons or dragons in folklore, epitomising arrogant power. Knowles remarked, "In all ages, the dragon has been regarded as a minister of evil, the destruction of which was considered one of the grandest objects of human energy."
The Defeater of Dragons
Enter the hero. The task of slaying the dragon and restoring order is given to heroes, prophets, or gods. In ancient Greek myth, Apollo killed Python, the dragon guarding the Oracle of Delphi. Perseus, the son of Zeus, slew a dragon to save Andromeda. Beowulf also famously killed a dragon.
In Buddhist traditions, however, dragons aren’t slain but subdued. After their defeat, the dragons and the local population are converted to the faith.
In the Chinese Vinaya of the Mula-Sarvastivadin sect, Apasala, the dragon of Gandhara, was defeated by Buddha. Buddha prophesied that a century after his Nirvana, a monk would defeat the dragon Hu-lu-tu (known in Pali traditions as Aravala) and turn Kashmir into a peaceful land of great Buddhist congregation.
This legend, with variations, appears in Sri Lankan Buddhist traditions, which speak of missionaries sent to Kashmir under the leadership of Majjhantika (or Madhyantika or Madhyandina) during Ashoka’s reign, who converted "evil dragons" to Buddhism using his superhuman powers and teaching the locals Āsīvisopamasutta.
Āsīvisopamasutta is a discourse found in the Saṁyutta Nikāya, a collection of Buddhist scriptures. In this sutta, the Buddha uses a series of powerful similes to illustrate the dangers of existence and the path to liberation. Imagine four lethal poisonous vipers: a person who wants to live, be happy, and avoid pain would be warned about these vipers.
In another tradition, Majjhantika’s duel with the dragon in Kashmir caused the ground to tremble, forcing the dragon to hurl thunder and lightning, causing torrents of rain. Eventually, the dragon was no match. In a different version, Madhyantika sat on a great mountain and exhibited his powers. The dragon, upon seeing Madhyantika, asked what he wanted.
Madhyantika replied, "I want you to grant me room for my knees in the lake." The dragon withdrew water from the lake, but Madhyantika enlarged his body through supernatural powers until the dragon had drawn off all of the lake. The dragon then found itself in a small lake northwest of the original and begged the monk to live in Kashmir permanently.
Madhyantika agreed that 500 Arhats (Buddhists who have reached enlightenment) would remain in Kashmir as long as Buddhism lasted, and the country would become a lake again when Buddhism ceased to exist.
The lake continues to be guarded by the dragon.
Zoroastrian Tradition
A festival called Frove is held at the Aishmuqam Shrine of Zain-ud-din Rishi which continues for ten days. It is regarded as a vestige of Zoroastrianism in Kashmir. It is only held in Zain's shrine in Aishmuqam - which according to Gulshan Majid could be derived from Asi - a Zoroastrian deity. The shrine is inside a cave, which is said to have been overpowered by Zain after defeating dragons and monsters.
In Popular Culture
In the early 20th century, Ladakh was seen as a gateway to Tibet, attracting many foreign explorers travelling from India to Kashmir. Here, Kashmiri craftsmen used dragon motifs in their handicrafts, creating a connection with Ladakh and unknowingly revisiting ancient mythological ties with dragons. Knowles also recounted a tale of two princes who were to succeed their emperor's father. The younger prince was bitten by a dragon living inside a spring. A Jogi, taking pity on the prince’s lifeless body, drained the spring.
"Why have you emptied the spring?" asked the dragon.
"Because you have slain this young man. Why did you do this?" the Jogi replied.
"O Jogi!" said the dragon, "there were two birds that often visited this place and filled the air with their songs. The prince killed them. Therefore I bit him."
"You have done wickedly," said the Jogi. "Listen. Extract the poison from the man’s foot, so that he may live again, or you shall die."
"Forgive me," said the dragon, "and I will obey you." Thus, the prince was restored to life.
Later in the story, the princes unite.
References:
Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. Sarup & Sons, 2000.
‘Definition of ARHAT’. Accessed 11 July 2024. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/arhat.
Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ... Printed at the Government Central Press, 1896.
Hindustan Times. ‘“Dragon” Rumours Scare Kashmir Residents’, 22 September 2012. https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/dragon-rumours-scare-kashmir-residents/story-yimyFIpult2W9ueZEuun0N.html.
Knowles, J. Hinton. Folk-Tales of Kashmir. Routledge, 2013.
Murrin, Michael. Trade and Romance. University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Oriental Translation Fund. Published under the auspices of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1904.
SuttaCentral. ‘SuttaCentral’. Accessed 11 July 2024. https://suttacentral.net/.
Vākpati. The Gaüḍavaho: a historical poem in Prâkṛit. Government central book Departmentôt, 1887.
Vogel, J. P., and Jean Philippe Vogel. Indian Serpent-Lore: Or, The Nāgas in Hindu Legend and Art. Asian Educational Services, 1995.